RELIGION, GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT: EMERGING ISSUES
The term gender simply means the classification of people into male and female, but it is more than that. Gender classification includes what society expects from each of the sexes: both biological and social responsibilities. Nature has bestowed upon the female gender certain natural and social expectations which include: child-bearing, household duties, planting, harvesting and processing of agricultural produce. This could be summarized as production and reproduction. Likewise, the male has the major responsibility, as the head of the household, of taking care of the family. It is in this light that this study looks at the religion perspective of gender to the development of Nigeria Nigeria
INTRODUCTION
Like other African countries which face problems of ethnic and cultural diversity, Nigeria's recent history has been of civil unrest, riots, violence and conflict in the process of finding an answer to the 'national question' and giving birth to a strong and unified country. Over twenty of these riots have an inter-religious source (Enwerem, 1995). As Momoh (2002) argue, Nigeria Nigeria an interesting case to study gender and religion as they affect her development, especially during the early years of the Fourth Republic Nigeria
These were the formations and structure that the process of colonisation disrupted. The British intervention began with the colonisation of Lagos Southern Nigeria were created. It is 1914 however that is generally recognised as the year for the creation of Nigeria
After independence in 1960, following the colonial administration, the country was broken into units or regions which broadly corresponded to religious areas of influence: the Muslim North and the Christian South, the latter also divided in Catholic East and Muslim and Christian West. The region known as the middle-belt was predominantly 'pagan' and became the recruiting grounds for new advocates for both Christianity and Islam; the former being more successful due to western education that was controlled by Christians (Enwerem, 1995). The Nigeria Nigeria
The objectives of this study include; i) analyze gender and religion in today's economy focusing specifically on Nigeria, ii) identify the similarities and differences in the Muslim and Christian perspectives and iii) propose possible measures which are relatively important towards the eradication of religious crisis. This study is an exploratory study restricted in scope to the Nigerian economy. The study would be of importance to certain government agencies to formulate policies that would positively affect the workings of religion, as it, in turn affects both the male and female gender and bring about Nigeria
LITERATURE REVIEW
The Concept of Gender Development
Gender development is a fundamental issue because some of the most important aspects of people's lives, such as the talents they cultivate, the conceptions they hold of themselves and others, the sociostructural opportunities and constraints they encounter, and the social life and occupational paths they pursue are heavily prescribed by societal gender-typing. It is the primary basis on which people get differentiated with pervasive effects on their daily lives. Gender differentiation takes on added importance because many of the attributes and roles selectively promoted in males and females tend to be differentially valued with those ascribed to males generally being regarded as more desirable, effectual and of higher status. Although some gender differences are biologically founded, most of the stereotypic attributes and roles linked to gender arise more from cultural design than from biological endowment (Bandura, 1986; Beali 8c Sternberg, 1993; Epstein, 1997).
Over the years several major theories have been proposed to explain gender development. The theories differ on several important dimensions. One dimension concerns the relative emphasis placed on psychological, biological, and sociostructural determinants. Psychologically-oriented theories tend to emphasize intrapsychic processes governing gender development (Freud, 1905/1930). In contrast, sociological theories focus on sociostructural determinants of gender-role development and functioning (Berger, Rosenholtz 8c Zelditch, 1980; Eagly, 1987a; Epstein, 1988). According to biologically- oriented theories, gender differences arising from the differential biological roles played by males and females in reproduction underlie gender-role development and differentiation (Buss, 1985). A second dimension concerns the temporal scope of the theoretical analyses. Most psychological theories treat gender development as primarily a phenomenon of early childhood rather than one that operates throughout the life course. However, rules of gender-role conduct vary to some degree across social contexts and at different periods in life. Moreover, sociocultural and technological changes necessitate revision of pre-existing conceptions of what constitutes appropriate gender conduct. Gender role development and functioning are not confined to childhood but are negotiated throughout the life course. While most theories of gender development have been concerned with the early years of development (Kohlberg, 1966) or have focused on adults (Deaux 8c Major, 1987), sociocognitive theory takes a life-course perspective.
Issues on Religion
The purpose of this section is to point out those characteristics that make religion an essential factor to consider when studying development. Religion can act both as a strong identity and bond to a social group and as a tool to legitimize power. Thus, the approach of this paper to look at the link between development and religion is through the links between the latter with identity and politics. Religion provides a \inified system of beliefs and practices', as Durkheim states (cited in Hargrove, 1989), which determines that society's morality. More than being what relates the individual to a liigher being', religion is also the provider of a set of values that influence the way each individual relates to others and his/her behaviour in general.
Religion and Identity
In determining people's identity, religion confers on the individual a sense of belonging to the society that shares the same beliefs and values. Following Durkheim's definition of religion, it 'involves some kind of community - a group of people who share the activities and anticipations of the religion...' (ibid). Hargrove (1989) also argues that 'if religion provides a unified system of meaning, it also provides the rationale for the structure of the society and the individual's place in it', allowing for the integration of the personality by 'organising the chaos of existence and choice'. And she goes further by stating that 'religion is more than a belief, it is practice; it functions to integrate society in the share behaviour it involves, as well as the meanings that behaviour symbolises. Religion is not concerned simply with ideas; it is basically a system of action.
Religion and Politics
Religion can act as both an agent to keep the status quo, as well as an agent of change and revolution. The Catholic Church's supremacy through the Middle Ages is a clear example of how religion can be an effective instrument to keep and legitimate the status quo. More contemporary events illustrate the disruptive power of faith and how it can be a strong means to social change: the black civil rights movement in the US, Poland's Solidarity movement, the 1979 Nicaraguan revolution, South Africa's anti- apartheid movement and so on (Smith, 1996).
The Role of Religion in Political Development
Recent trends of thinking in the development field have turned their attention to issues on gender and religion. These new approaches have been categorised as the 'right-based approach to development', raising questions on issues and definitions of the concepts mentioned.
When looking into issues of development and politics, religion becomes an essential aspect to consider. As Moyser (1991) clearly states, 'the religious order has a pre-eminent claim over the believer and the social order of everyday life, thus extending its influence over the political domain when collective decisions concerning that social order are being made'. Hence, the way the individual relates to the state and acts in the public arena are also determined by the religious order. 'Politics [...] is made relative to, and is validated by, religion' (ibid). It is possible therefore to argue that some of citizens' most visible political actions like voting or protest may reflect important underlying beliefs, values and opinions (Moyser, 1991). As it is going to be illustrated in the Nigerian case study below, citizen's actions are indeed influenced by religious reasons interwoven with other factors such as ethnicity, social class, gender and economic interests. Another example of how religion also influences the decision-making process in the public sphere is law-making regarding issues of education, family, sexuality or capital punishment (ibid) - e.g. polygamy, homosexuality, inheritance, etc.
Focusing on the context of developing countries and their colonial experiences, it is seen that people in the South tend to be more religious than in the North as a result of different historical processes. Religio-political systems or theocracies dominated geographical areas such as sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia prior to European colonisation. With the 'intrusion' of western ideas and western power, the division between religion and politics was introduced and the long, uneven, and complex processes of secularisation' began (Smith, 1971).
The western conception of a secular state was imposed on colonies and inherited after independence. For most former colonial societies characterised by religious pluralism, national integration has been a major distress, bringing violence, conflict and civil unrest. The Asian sub-continent, as well as many sub-Saharan African countries, such as Nigeria
Gender and Religion in Nigeria
The issue of gender and religion is addressed by showing the significance of religion in shaping people's identities and access to entitlements as perceived by Nigerians. Further, a comparative analysis between Muslim and Christian views on the subject show the influence and impact of religion in shaping those perceptions. The case study uses Kaduna State which is a flashpoint in Northern Nigeria . It focuses particularly on Zaria
According to Kukah and Falola (1996), the 'largest scale of destruction to places of worship', happened in Kaduna Kaduna Nigeria Northern Nigeria . Due to the implications this has on gender, it is relevant to analyse both Christian and Muslim perspectives on the issues of religion and gender.
Muslim and Christian Perspectives
The approach in which practitioners of these two religions understand the issue of citizenship in particular and politics in general has interesting implications in the way they exercise their citizenship, e.g. how to claim rights and even the kind of rights they believe they are entitled to, be entitled with. They differ in essence; however they have also some features in common.
Similarities
* The understanding of Citizenship
Both Muslims and Christians have a similar idea of citizenship. They understand it as belonging to a certain society or environment, assisting each other and looking after each other's welfare. Being a citizen provides a certain protection. All the people interviewed expressed the opinion that the sense of belonging is determined primarily by religion and then other factors like ethnicity and language.
* Expectations from the Government
As citizens, Christians and Muslims concur that their rights should be protected and needs provided by the government. They mentioned security as the primary need, and then other services such as electricity, sanitation, roads in good conditions, etc.
* Social Change
For both religions, the way to influence society and induce social change is by living according to their beliefs and transmits that lifestyle to others in different contexts. A Muslim said that 'the whole life of a Muslim is ruled by Islam; every aspect of one's life is shaped by Islam, the way we dress, the way we eat, the way we relate to other people, and so on. Everything has to do with Islam'. Supporting this idea, another Muslim mentioned 'Religion influence my way of life, my actions my behaviour'. The same way, a Christian said that "The Christian faith is a life style built on Christ. He gave us life, and we have to live the life as the scriptures say'.
Differences
* Being a Nigerian
Interesting is the fact that two of the Muslims interviewed said not to be proud of being a Nigerian. "I don't feel that I am Nigerian, it is nothing I can be proud of" and the other one said in a clear-cut manner that he felt very disappointed for being a one. While the Christians interviewed mentioned that they were very proud of being Nigerians. It is difficult to state any relationship between this feeling and religious affiliation. Nevertheless it is important to point out in case that further research gives more light, (Abah and Okwori, 2002).
* Rights
The perception of rights and how to claim them is very different between Islam and Christianity in this context. For example, the Muslim Imam stated that they care for 'the encouragement of rights stated in our religion'. In Islam rights are stipulated in the Koran and reinforced by the Shari'a law, such as the right to life, education, having children. In contrast, Christians expressed that their rights are those in the Constitution. The Christian Priest said about claiming rights, ? do not believe people should go on strike but dialogue [...] in claiming rights you should adopt biblical methods like dialogue not strikes, demonstrations or fighting'.
* Choosing Leaders
The issue of choosing leaders and voting is very sensitive in the Nigeria
On the other hand, Christians said that the religion of the person in power does not matter as long he is honest and shows the best attributes to rule. The Christian Priest emphasized the need to pray so 'God can tell you the right person to choose and vote for'. He also highlighted: 'We have the mandate to pray for every leader appointed regardless of their religion so he can rule us', (Abah and Okwori, 2003).
For both Islam and Christianity, the ultimate leadership is in 'God's hands' and it is him who chooses whom to give power and whom to take it away. Also, both religions have a sexist perception of leadership since the interviewees, even women, referred to rulers as he only. Although gender issues are not in the scope of this paper, it is important to point this out.
* Shari'a
The debate on Shari'a Courts is a very passionate one in the whole of Nigeria Nigeria
* Secularity
Views on politics are also diametrically opposed between Christians and Muslims. 'Islam and politics cannot be separated, Islam is politics and politics is Islam'. On the other hand, the Christian Priest said that "There is a demarcation line between religion and polities'. Both positions are fundamental to their religious doctrine. The Priest pointed out that according to the Bible, Jesus proclaims that His kingdom is not of this world, that Caesar and God are not substitute to one another. In explaining this difference between Islam and Christianity, Kukah and Fai ola (1996) say, it is easy to understand Islam's political nature because it was founded in politics; everything therefore becomes part of the structural and architectural design of the state.
For Muslims, the idea of a secular state is not acceptable as they see such separation to go against their religion. Christians suggest that the government should stay out of religious matters and that every religious group should be free to pursue its own goals (Kukah and Falola, 1996). It is interesting that this argument is used by the Muslims that the constitutional freedom which allows freedom of belief means to Muslims that they are granted by this Constitutional right, to have Shari'a Courts, while to Christians interprete it is a violation of the Constitution and their own rights. However, although Nigeria Nigeria
METHODOLOGY
Theoretical Framework
Theories on Gender and Development
The idea of citizenship emerged from the Western philosophical thinking. According to Kabeer (2002) it is framed by the 'two great gender and development traditions', the liberal and the republican; but she further explains that these traditions have been elaborated over time in different ways such as the libertarian and communitarian variations. Jones and Gaventa (2002) when addressing the conceptualisation of gender and development recognise three main trends around which discussions of the concept have been developing: the liberal, communitarian and civic republican.
The liberal theories define citizenship as a status which entitles individuals to a specific set of universal rights granted by the state. The idea that citizens act 'rationally' towards the fulfilment of their interests is central for liberal theories (Gaventa, 2002). It also implies a 'passive notion' of gender and development, since it does not entail responsibilities. The civic republican approach addresses the right and obligation of the citizens to participate in political affairs. It implies an 'active' role of the individual in relation to his/her political community; it sees citizenship as 'practice' (Kabeer, 2002). While the communitarian theories centre on the notion of the socially-embedded citizen and community belonging. They argue that the individual's realisation of interests and identity can only be defined in relation to the community he/she belongs (Jones and Gaventa, 2002).
More recent approaches to gender and development are linking the liberal, communitarian and civic republican theories in an attempt to find a way to encompass their main contributions. The focus of these contemporary approaches, Jones and Gaventa explain, is the need to conceptualise citizenship as both a status and an active practice. Some of these debates are often framed by discussions of identity, focusing on how people see themselves and act as citizens. This new approach, known as the 'model of identity politics' (Van Oenen, 2002), considers identity as a positive political asset. Identity is essential in the discussions of gender and development, sense of belonging and struggles for rights (McKinnon and Hampsher-Monk, 2000). The identity politics model asserts that the way in which people perceive themselves is likely to have a significant impact on how they behave as citizens, how they understand their rights and obligations and on the ways and motivations to participate. According to Mouffe, Isin and Wood (cited in Jones and Gaventa, 2002), an individual's sense of identity and sense of citizenship mutually shape each other. As explained by Jones and Gaventa, Mouffe conceptualises identity as an ensemble of 'subject positions', e.g. Tvluslim Hausa', 'Christian female', 'northern Nigerian'; each representing the individual's identifications with a particular group, such as ethnicity, religion, gender. Each of these subject positions shapes the others and all together forms the individual's identity. Therefore, the way a Muslim Hausa male living in Kaduna State
Given the identity politics approach and following the argument that identity and understanding of citizenship shape each other, this paper deals with the issue of gender and religion as they affect the development of Nigeria
Sample Size
This study is based on responses to a 'Structured Kabeer Gender Questionnaire' (SKGQ) administered in Ikeja Local Government in Lagos , Nigeria Nigeria
RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 below presents a summary of the average gender scores of the respondents used in this study. It can be seen from the result that both male and female have an average belief in Nigeria
An examination of each item score shows that for six of the 10 income/ development items, the males have more confidence, i.e. lower mean scores with the females reporting more confidence in the other four items.
Only levels of significance below 0.5 are shown. The t-test statistic was used.
Note: The higher the mean value, the lower the income \ development confidence.
Fndings
The findings of this study include:
* The recent 'rights-based' approach to development has turned the attention of intellectuals to address the definition of concepts such as gender and development from new perspectives. Traditional theories have failed to give a definition of citizenship that can be applied to the context of developing countries. In this regard, contemporary theories have increasingly recognised that there are no universal meanings of gender and development and are exploring areas such as identity in defining them. These recent theories address the importance of people's identities in the way they perceive themselves and act as citizens, and also in their understanding of rights and entitlements.
* This study showed that people express their identity in terms of different cultural factors such as religion, language and ethnicity. The way in which their religious identity impacts on how they perceive themselves as citizens, their rights and entitlements, is made clear when comparing views of Muslims and Christians other. Both similarities and differences were found in the comparison. Both Muslims and Christians believe that it is through the practice of their religious beliefs that they can impact on social change, although those principles are different from one to the other.
* Both males and females believe that religion has a significant impact on the development of Nigeria Nigeria
RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
Recommendations
In response to the little attention given to religion and its role in shaping meanings of human existence, this paper addressed the issue by stating the link between these concepts through gender and development. It showed how religion is still a determinant factor in defining individual's identities and shaping development, especially in the context of developing countries. The study, therefore, made the following recommendations:
* The Nigerian Government should try and minimise, if not eliminate gender discrimination against women in all ramifications since some religions are against women being publicly heard or holding important positions in such religious organisations. This would allow women to contribute their quota to the development of the nation.
* The differences in perceptions from Muslims and Christians are greater, showing how religion does influence them. Their understanding of what their rights are and how to choose their leaders are strongly influenced by their religion. These different ideas have brought conflict and violence some parts of Nigeria Nigeria
Conclusion
Therefore, this study concludes that religion is indeed a significant factor in the way people see themselves and act as citizens. It shows that religion is an imperative to consider when studying gender and development, especially in developing countries' contexts. Religion plays an important role in the development of a country. Although it is impossible to make further assumptions due to its scope and resources, this paper attests to the urgent need for more research in this field.
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